What Is Peptide Therapy?

What Is Peptide Therapy?

A state-of-the-art development in personalized medicine, peptide therapy uses short sequences of amino acids, or peptides, vital signalling molecules in the body. These naturally occurring substances regulate numerous biological processes, such as hormone synthesis, cell signalling, immunological responses, and tissue repair. With more than 7,000 peptides in the human body, researchers have used these molecules' therapeutic potential to target physiological processes, providing novel treatments for ailments such as chronic diseases, metabolic disorders, aging, and hormonal imbalances. This treatment offers a customized, accurate, and less intrusive method of maximizing health and reestablishing equilibrium by imitating or boosting the body's natural peptides. Peptide treatment connects cutting-edge science and holistic wellness, whether it is for performance enhancement, rehabilitation, or longevity support.

Peptide therapy has become a popular and cutting-edge method for treating a variety of health issues in both men and women. Peptide therapies target physiological processes by utilizing the body's inherent signalling pathways, providing advantages in several areas related to health and well-being. Peptides are widely used in men's health to counteract age-related decreases in hormone levels and physical performance. Therapies like Ipamorelin and CJC-1295, stimulate growth hormone release, improving muscular growth, fat reduction, and recuperation. For males with hypogonadism, gonadorelin and HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) promote fertility and testosterone production. Furthermore, peptides that increase libido and arousal, such as Bremelanotide (PT-141), are becoming increasingly popular for treating sexual dysfunction. Peptide therapy is used to treat age-related issues, reproductive health issues, and hormonal abnormalities in women. GH-releasing peptides and tesamorelin are used to enhance metabolic function and body composition, especially in postmenopausal women. Intimacy and quality of life have been enhanced by the approval of Bremelanotide (PT-141) for women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD). Peptides like Epithalon are also being investigated for their possible anti-aging qualities, which include improving the quality of sleep, controlling circadian rhythms, and encouraging cellular repair. Peptide therapy has benefits for mental health in addition to physical health. For example, Thymosin Alpha-1 (TA1) strengthens immune resilience, whereas NAD+ therapy promotes cognitive function and fights weariness. Some of the emerging as well as popular peptides are discussed in this article.

Peptides

The basic building blocks of proteins are called peptides. These are short chains of amino acids, usually 2 to 50, joined by peptide bonds. Peptides, which are smaller and more selective than bigger proteins, frequently serve as signalling molecules that control important biological functions. They are found naturally in the human body and have an impact on processes like metabolism, immunological response, hormone regulation, and cellular communication. The therapeutic potential of synthetic peptides, which are made to mimic or improve these natural processes, is driving their usage in biotechnology and medicine. Peptides are now a key component of treatments for anything from skin aging and tissue healing to chronic diseases and hormone imbalances due to their accuracy and adaptability.

1. NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)

All live cells contain the coenzyme NAD+, which is necessary for cellular repair and energy metabolism. It is also essential for several physiological functions, such as cellular signalling, mitochondrial activity, and DNA repair. Since levels of the neurotransmitter decrease with age, restoring NAD+ has become a focus of treatments meant to prolong life and fight chronic illnesses.

Fact

All living cells contain the vital coenzyme NAD+. It is involved in more than 500 enzymatic processes.

Mechanism of Action

NAD+ participates in redox reactions and transports electrons in metabolic processes such as oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. It activates sirtuins and PARPs (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases) to repair DNA, respond to cellular stress, and preserve mitochondrial function.

Clinical Data

A 2019 study found that nicotinetinamide riboside (NAD+) precursors enhanced mitochondrial activity and endurance in older mice. Another clinical study found that NAD+ supplementation improved cellular repair processes in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Another clinical trial found that NAD+ precursors may decrease inflammation and enhance insulin sensitivity in people.

Dosage Forms

• Oral supplements: Nicotinamide riboside (NR) and Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN).
• Intravenous (IV): Usually offered in clinical settings.

Other Clinical Benefits

• Enhanced cognitive performance and Alzheimer's disease neuroprotection.
• Improved recuperation from injuries and muscle exhaustion.
• Possible decrease in the risks of metabolic syndrome.

Side Effects

Usually well tolerated; high doses may result in headaches, exhaustion, or moderate gastrointestinal distress.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

The usual oral dosage for NAD+ precursors is 250–500 mg per day. Although they differ from clinic to clinic, IV infusions typically consist of 250–750 mg per visit.

Contraindications

Before using NAD+ supplements, people who are receiving cancer treatment or have a history of NAD+ supplement hypersensitivity should speak with their doctor.

Cost and Accessibility

It costs between $40 and $100 each month to purchase oral NAD+ precursors. Depending on the clinic, IV treatment sessions might cost anywhere from $300 to $1,000 per session. NewBody Rx offers NAD+ for $90.

2. HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

A hormone called HCG is naturally created during pregnancy to assist fetal development and preserve corpus luteum function. It has been repurposed for medicinal usage to treat certain illnesses in both men and women, as well as infertility and hormonal abnormalities.

Fact

Although HCG is not FDA-approved for weight loss, it has been controversially promoted for this purpose.

Mechanism of Action

By imitating luteinizing hormone (LH), HCG promotes the generation of testosterone in males and ovulation in women. In hypogonadal males, it also encourages spermatogenesis.

Clinical Data

A 2017 randomized controlled trial demonstrated that HCG improves ovulation rates in women undergoing infertility treatments. Clinical evidence also shows that HCG therapy enhances spermatogenesis in males with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. However, no substantial clinical evidence supports HCG for weight loss; a 2014 JAMA review concluded that it is ineffective for this purpose.

Dosage Forms

Injectable forms (intramuscular or subcutaneous).

Other Clinical Benefits

• May aid in treating adolescents' delayed puberty.
• Therapy for infants with cryptorchidism (a disorder when one or both testes are unable to descend from the abdomen and into the scrotum).

Side Effects

Water retention, headaches, and mood swings are common. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) in females is a rare side effect.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

In women, a dose of 5000–10000 IU is utilized to induce ovulation. For hypogonadism, men should take 1,000–2,000 IU 2-3 times a week.

Contraindications

It is contraindicated in people with a history of thromboembolic diseases or hormone-sensitive malignancies.

Cost and Accessibility

It is prescription-only, and prices often vary from $50 to $300, depending on the drugstore and insurance. NewBody Rx offers HCG for $40.

3. Sermorelin

Sermorelin is a synthetic analogue of Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH). It is a condensed version of GHRH that only contains the first 29 amino acids. Sermorelin is intended to promote the pituitary glands synthesis and release of growth hormone. Despite no longer being an FDA-approved medication, compounding pharmacies still sell it.

Fact

It was approved by the FDA but discontinued for commercial reasons in 2008.

Mechanism of Action

Sermorelin stimulates GH secretion via binding to GHRH receptors in the anterior pituitary gland, which in turn encourages the liver to produce more IGF-1.

Clinical Data

According to research in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, sermorelin helped children with idiopathic GHD grow faster. With a better safety record, the medication promoted normal growth patterns that were like those seen with HGH therapy. Sermorelin has been shown to help adults with GHD lose weight, gain lean muscle mass, and improve body composition. Based on clinical studies, it was found to be beneficial in enhancing patients' metabolic profiles and general quality of life.

Dosage Forms

Subcutaneous injections.

Other Clinical Benefits

Other clinical benefits include enhanced sleep patterns, decreased fat buildup, and increased lean muscle mass.

Side Effects

Mild side effects include redness and irritation of the injection site. Severe side effects include Gynecomastia and carpal tunnel syndrome. However, these are rare in nature.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

The usual dosage is 0.2–0.3 mg subcutaneously per day, given before bed.

Contraindications

People with untreated thyroid malfunction or active cancers must avoid the use of Sermorelin.

Cost and Accessibility

Compounding pharmacies sell it; monthly prices range from $150 to $300. Sermorelin retails for $40 at NewBody Rx.

4. Ipamorelin

Ipamorelin is a synthetic peptide that functions similarly to ghrelin as a selective growth hormone secretagogue (GHS). Five amino acids make up its composition: Aib, His, D-2-Nal, D-Phe, Lys, and NH₂. Without changing the levels of cortisol or prolactin, it causes the pituitary gland to secrete more growth hormone (GH) naturally. Muscle atrophy, growth hormone shortages, and other age-related disorders are being treated with it because of its distinct selectivity and safety profile. We examine scientific facts and clinical data regarding its efficacy below.

Fact

For synergistic GH release, it is frequently coupled with CJC-1295. Because of its receptor specificity, it is thought to be safer than other GH secretagogues.

Mechanism of Action

Ipamorelin attaches itself to the pituitary and hypothalamic ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a). This interaction lowers the possibility of undesirable side effects by causing the anterior pituitary to release growth hormone (GH) without appreciably raising the levels of other pituitary hormones like prolactin or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Clinical Data

Ipamorelin's effects on muscle tissue were assessed in a study. The results showed that it successfully encouraged the proliferation and differentiation of muscle cells. When used in conjunction with physical therapy, the peptide has been demonstrated to improve total muscle mass and hasten muscle recovery following injury. In another study, Ipamorelin successfully restored GH levels in elderly persons without interfering with other hormonal pathways. Skin elasticity, energy levels, and sleep quality all improved for participants. However, further studies are required to substantiate these findings.

Dosage Forms

Usually, ipamorelin is injected intravenously or subcutaneously.

Other Clinical Benefits

Ipamorelin has been studied for possible advantages in muscle growth and recovery and its GH-releasing properties. It is a potential treatment for age-related muscle degeneration and muscle wasting disorders because of its capacity to specifically increase GH release without appreciably altering other hormones.

Side Effects

Ipamorelin has a good safety record and is usually well-tolerated. Temporary flushing, headaches, and moderate injection site discomfort are common adverse effects. Crucially, Ipamorelin's selectivity means that it doesn't considerably raise cortisol or prolactin levels, which lowers the possibility of adverse effects linked to high levels of these hormones.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Ipamorelin is administered in combination with CJC-1295 at a dose of 100-300 mcg/day in single or divided doses. Usually given once a day, injections are given subcutaneously. It is best taken in the morning or right before bed on an empty stomach.

Contraindications

People with sensitivity to Ipamorelin must avoid its use.

Cost and Accessibility

Ipamorelin retails for $45 at NewBody Rx.

5. Tesamorelin

Tesamorelin is a synthetic growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) analog that is intended to increase the pituitary gland's production of growth hormone (GH). It is mostly used to help HIV-infected patients with lipodystrophy lose extra belly fat.

Fact

In 2010, the FDA approved tesamorelin, which is sold under the trade name Egrifta SV®, to treat HIV-associated lipodystrophy.

Mechanism of Action

Tesamorelin stimulates the production and release of endogenous GH by binding to GHRH receptors in the pituitary gland. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which is essential for lipid metabolism and body composition, is subsequently elevated by the elevated GH levels. This cascade leads to better lipid profiles and a decrease in VAT by lipolysis.

Clinical Data

Tesamorelin has been shown in clinical trials to be effective in lowering VAT (Visceral Adipose Tissue) in lipodystrophic HIV-positive people. Participants in a randomized, placebo-controlled study showed notable improvements in body image and a decrease in VAT over 26 weeks. Tesamorelin reduced liver fat in a moderate but statistically significant way, according to another study. This suggests that Tesamorelin may help treat non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in this population.

Dosage Forms

For subcutaneous injection, tesamorelin is available as a lyophilized powder. Before being administered, the 1 mg of tesamorelin in each vial needs to be reconstituted with the supplied diluent.

Other Clinical Benefits

Tesamorelin has been linked to improvements in lipid profiles, including lower triglyceride levels, in addition to lowering VAT. Patients with HIV may be less likely to experience cardiovascular problems because of these modifications.

Side Effects

Tesamorelin frequently causes joint pain, peripheral edema, and injection site responses (such as redness and itching). Hypersensitivity responses and glucose intolerance are examples of serious side effects.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

It is recommended that 2 mg of Tesamorelin be injected subcutaneously into the abdomen once a day. Rotating injection sites is crucial for reducing the chance of lipoatrophy.

Contraindications

Tesamorelin should not be used in people who have:

• Disturbance of the pituitary-hypothalamic axis
• Active cancers
• Intolerance of Tesamorelin or any of its ingredients
• Pregnancy

Cost and Accessibility

Tesamorelin retails for $40 at NewBody Rx.

6. Mecasermin

Mecasermin, a recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 (rhIGF-1), is used to treat growth failure in children with severe primary insulin-like growth factor-1 deficit (SPIGFD) over an extended period.

Fact

Mecasermin was approved by the FDA in 2005 to treat growth failure in children with SPIGFD. It is sold under the trade name Increlex®.

Mechanism of Action

Mecasermin promotes the growth and development of bones and tissues by directly binding to IGF-1 receptors. Despite normal or high growth hormone levels, endogenous IGF-1 synthesis is inadequate in people with SPIGFD. Mecasermin treatment makes up for this shortfall and promotes healthy growth patterns.

Clinical Data

Mecasermin successfully promotes linear growth in children with SPIGFD, according to clinical research. Based on several studies, subcutaneous mecasermin used in long-term IGF-1 replacement therapy significantly improved height standard deviation scores over several years of treatment.

Dosage Forms

Mecasermin can be injected subcutaneously as a sterile solution. The strength of mecasermin is 10 mg/mL in each vial.

Other Clinical Benefits

While further studies are needed to fully explain these advantages, mecasermin may also promote linear growth and have positive effects on metabolic indicators and body composition.

Side Effects

The most common side effect is hypoglycemia, which can be avoided by eating a meal or snack right before or right after taking the medication. Redness or pain are examples of injection site reactions. Tonsillar Hypertrophy is another side effect of Mecasermin observed in some patients.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Mecasermin should be injected subcutaneously twice a day at a beginning dose of 0.04 to 0.08 mg/kg. Depending on each patient's response and tolerance, the dose may be raised to 0.12 mg/kg. To lower the risk of hypoglycemia, mecasermin must be taken either right before or right after a meal.

Contraindications

Mecasermin should not be used in people who have:

• Active or Suspected Malignancy.
• Hypersensitivity to the drug.
• Closed epiphyses (A sign that bone development has stopped).

7. BPC

The 15-amino acid synthetic peptide BPC-157 is based on a portion sequence of the body protection compound (BPC) present in human stomach juice. It is acknowledged for having the capacity to regenerate and mend a variety of tissues.

Fact

Primarily noted in animal research, BPC-157 has shown promise in promoting healing in a variety of tissues, including skin, muscle, tendon, ligament, and bone.

Mechanism of Action

It is believed that BPC-157 works by triggering the VEGFR2-Akt-eNOS pathway, which is important for tissue healing and angiogenesis. Its regenerative properties may also be enhanced by stimulating the manufacture of growth factors, inhibiting inflammation, activating cells involved in tissue repair, and promoting the creation of nitric oxide.

Clinical Data

There is currently little clinical evidence available on BPC-157. Most studies have been carried out in animal models and have shown protective effects against different types of tissue injury. However, because trials seem to have been discontinued or cancelled without any published conclusions, there is a severe shortage of published clinical trial data in humans.

Dosage Forms

Usually offered as a lyophilized powder, BPC-157 is meant to be reconstituted and administered by subcutaneous injection. Notably, BPC-157's manufacturing and distribution are not standardized, and no international regulatory body has authorized it for clinical use in humans.

Other Clinical Benefits

BPC-157 has been studied for its possible neuroprotective benefits, which include reducing both inflammatory and non-inflammatory pain in animal models, in addition to tissue repair. These results are tentative, though, and have not been confirmed by human research.

Side Effects

The safety profile of BPC-157 is yet unknown because there aren't any thorough clinical trials conducted on humans.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

The absence of human clinical trials has largely prevented the establishment of standardized dose guidelines for BPC-157. Different dosages have been investigated in animal research; however it is difficult to apply these results in human settings. Healthcare providers should use evidence-based therapies with proven safety and effectiveness profiles and proceed with caution.

Contraindications

There are no known contraindications for BPC-157 due to the lack of clinical data. It is wise to refrain from using it, though, in the absence of strong proof from human research, particularly in susceptible groups like expectant or nursing mothers, those with underlying medical issues, or people on other drugs.

8. CJC, CJC w/ DAC

CJC-1295 and CJC-1295 with DAC (Drug Affinity Complex) are analogues of GHRH that are synthesized. By influencing the pituitary gland, these peptides are intended to increase the production of growth hormone (GH). Their half-life and molecular stability are the main distinctions between CJC-1295 and CJC-1295 with DAC. Because the DAC alteration prolongs the peptide's half-life, less frequent administration is possible.

Fact

The half-life of CJC-1295 with DAC is roughly 6–8 days, whereas the half-life of CJC-1295 without DAC is significantly shorter at around 30 minutes.

Mechanism of Action

CJC-1295 binds to pituitary GHRH receptors to mimic the native GHRH. Endogenous growth hormone release is pulsatilely stimulated by this interaction. The peptide's active lifetime is extended, and renal clearance is decreased due to the increased affinity for albumin caused by the DAC change in CJC-1295. Long-term GH release over a few days is made possible by this alteration.

Clinical Data

Numerous investigations have examined CJC-1295's effectiveness and safety profile:

• Teichman et al. (2006) conducted a clinical trial in which they showed that CJC-1295 with DAC significantly raised serum GH and IGF-1 levels for up to 14 days after a single dosage.

• Potential Anti-Aging: Initial research indicates that the peptide may increase muscle mass, decrease body fat, and increase skin suppleness.

• Athletic Performance: Research on comparable GHRH analogs suggests that they may help improve physical performance, but there is a dearth of reliable clinical information tailored to athletes.

Dosage Forms

Typically, CJC-1295 and CJC-1295 with DAC are offered as follows:

• Powder that has been lyophilized for reconstitution.
• Formulations that can be injected.

Other Clinical Benefits

• Better Recovery: After an injury or workout, increased growth hormone levels aid in tissue regeneration and recovery.

• Cognitive Benefits: According to certain research, elevated IGF-1 levels may enhance memory and cognitive performance.

• Metabolic Health: Studies have shown improvements in insulin sensitivity and a decrease in visceral fat.

Side Effects

The side effects include localized injection site edema and redness, possible edema, and water retention, increased weariness or sluggishness, and possible hypoglycemia risk in vulnerable people.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

CJC-1295 without DAC: To replicate natural GH pulses, 100 mcg is administered 1-2 times per day. Weekly or biweekly doses of CJC-1295 with DAC, ranging from 2 to 4 mg. Usually administered subcutaneously, sterile methods are essential to reducing the chance of infection.

Contraindications

It is contraindicated in:

• Pregnancy and lactating mothers.
• People with cancer history or current cancers.
• People who suffer from severe endocrine problems or uncontrolled diabetes.

Cost and Accessibility

It is common to purchase CJC-1295 and its variations from peptide suppliers or compounding pharmacies. Depending on the vendor and formulation, prices might vary but often fall between $50 and $200 per vial. At NewBody Rx, CJC retails for $40 and CJC w DAC retails for $45.

9. AOD

AOD-9604, commonly known as AOD, is a modification of the C-terminal segment 176-191 of human growth hormone (hGH). It was created because it could replicate the fat-loss benefits of natural hGH without having the negative effects on blood sugar or growth stimulation that come with it. This peptide is categorized as a synthetic analog that is intended to support metabolic health and weight control.

Fact

The FDA has classified AOD-9604 as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use in nutraceuticals.

Mechanism of Action

AOD-9604 improves fat metabolism by stimulating beta-3 adrenergic receptors in adipose tissue. This peptide replicates hGH's ability to burn fat without changing blood sugar regulation or IGF-1 levels. Additionally, it functions by encouraging adipocytes to release their stored fat and by stopping new fat deposits from forming. It also boosts the oxidation of lipids to use energy.

Clinical Data

AOD-9604 markedly increased adipose tissue lipolytic activity while not affecting growth parameters. Studies examining the effectiveness of AOD-9604 in lowering body fat revealed a good safety record and a notable reduction in body fat in treated groups when compared to placebos. AOD-9604 has been demonstrated to help obese people lose weight and improve their metabolic parameters, especially when paired with lifestyle changes.

Dosage Forms

AOD is available in the following dosage forms:

• Injectable lyophilized powder.
• Lozenges and oral capsules (used in nutraceutical and experimental applications).

Other Clinical Benefits

• Cartilage Repair: According to several studies, there may be advantages for joint health and cartilage repair.

• Anti-inflammatory Properties: Some chronic illnesses appear to have less inflammation, according to preliminary evidence.

• Metabolic Regulation: Improves lipid profiles and increases energy expenditure in obese people.

Side Effects

The side effects include localized discomfort or redness at the injected site. Some people also complained of mild headaches or nausea. Occasionally, temporary exhaustion or sluggishness may also occur.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

The typical Dose for AOD is 300–500 mcg subcutaneously per day. To optimize metabolic effects, it is best to take this supplement in the morning or before engaging in physical activity. For best results, treatment typically lasts 12–16 weeks, with reassessments conducted by a healthcare professional regularly.

Contraindications

It is contraindicated in:

• Pregnancy.
• People with cancer history or current cancers.
• People who suffer from severe metabolic or endocrine problems.

Cost and Accessibility

Depending on supplier and purity, prices typically range from $40 to $120 per vial. Its classification as a prescription medication varies worldwide, which affects accessibility, even though it is GRAS-certified for use as a nutraceutical in some areas. At NewBody Rx, AOD retails for $40.

10. GHK

The tripeptide GHK (glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-lysine) is naturally present in human plasma, saliva, and urine. Since its discovery in the 1970s, it has been the subject of much research due to its potential for healing and regeneration. GHK is especially well-known for its capacity to bind copper, creating the complex GHK-Cu, which has strong biological activity.

Fact

GHK-Cu accelerates wound healing by promoting tissue remodelling, cellular migration, and angiogenesis.

Mechanism of Action

GHK mainly modifies gene expression to produce its effects. It downregulates genes linked to oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory processes while upregulating genes linked to tissue regeneration and repair. GHK's ability to bind copper increases its biological activity, enabling it to encourage fibroblasts to synthesize collagen and glycosaminoglycans and boost tissue healing and angiogenesis. It has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. GHK-Cu also contributes to tissue protection by interacting with multiple cellular pathways, such as metalloproteinase regulation and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β).

Clinical Data

GHK-Cu enhances skin density, flexibility, and barrier repair in aging skin based on a study. Another clinical study verified that GHK-Cu might hasten the healing of wounds in animal models. GHK was shown to promote healing and lower inflammatory markers in a mouse model of chronic inflammation.

Dosage Forms

• Topical formulations: GHK-Cu is found in a variety of cosmetic creams, serums, and gels.

• Injectable forms: Used in regenerative medicine for specific purposes.

• Oral supplements: Trial versions being studied for potential systemic advantages.

Other Clinical Benefits

• Hair Growth: Promotes thicker, healthier hair by increasing the activity of hair follicles.

• Neuroprotection: In preclinical research, GHK has shown promise in lowering neuroinflammation and promoting neuronal survival.

• Anti-oxidant Effect: The preventive effects of antioxidants in chronic diseases are attributed to their ability to reduce oxidative damage in tissues.

Side Effects

The side effects include mild redness or irritation of the skin when applied topically. Allergic responses to peptide formulations are uncommon. Clinical trials have not revealed any notable systemic adverse effects.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Topical Use: Once or twice a day, lightly coat the targeted region with a cream or serum containing GHK-Cu.

Injectable Use: Depending on the intended treatment, injections of 1–5 mg are typically given intradermally or subcutaneously.

Duration: The length of treatment varies, but for best outcomes, it usually lasts 4–12 weeks.

Contraindications

It is contraindicated in:

• People with known sensitivity to GHK or its compounds.
• Women who are pregnant or nursing unless a doctor has recommended it.
• Anyone with conditions affecting their copper metabolism, such as Wilson's disease, should speak with a doctor.

Cost and Accessibility

Topical Formulations: Depending on brand and concentration, prices typically range from $30 to $150 per unit.

Injectables: Depending on supply and purity, prices might range from $50 to $200 per vial. At NewBody Rx, it retails for $25- $35.

11. Gonadorelin

The synthetic decapeptide gonadorelin functions similarly to the hypothalamus's natural production of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Its main job is to control the anterior pituitary gland's production of two important hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Infertility and delayed puberty are two reproductive health conditions for which gonadorelin is frequently utilized in medical diagnosis and treatments.

Fact

The FDA authorized gonadorelin for use in both therapeutic and diagnostic settings, with a focus on reproductive endocrinology.

Mechanism of Action

LH and FSH release is stimulated when gonadorelin binds to the anterior pituitary gland's GnRH receptors. These hormones are essential because they encourage the creation of testosterone and estrogen, or gonadal steroidogenesis. They also encourage the generation of sperm and ovum, or gametogenesis. Gonadorelin promotes normal gonadal function by simulating natural GnRH secretion when given pulsatilely. However, because of receptor desensitization, continuous treatment inhibits the release of LH and FSH, which can help treat hormone-sensitive diseases like prostate cancer or endometriosis.

Clinical Data

Clinical studies have demonstrated that gonadorelin works well to restore normal levels of FSH and LH to treat hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. According to a study, infertile women were able to successfully induce ovulation. In adolescents with hypothalamic dysfunction, pulsatile gonadorelin has been shown in clinical trials to be effective in triggering puberty. In hormone-sensitive malignancies, continuous gonadotropin injection has been investigated for inhibiting gonadotropin release, which has shown promise in slowing tumor growth.

Dosage Forms

The most common dosage forms of gonadorelin are lyophilized powder for reconstitution or sterile injectable solution. To replicate normal secretion patterns, specialized equipment is available for delivering pulsatile doses. These are known as ‘Pumps for Pulsatile Delivery’.

Other Clinical Benefits

Hormone Replacement Therapy: In hypogonadotropic disorders, gonadorelin helps control secondary sexual traits.

Menstrual Regulation: Helps treat irregular periods brought on by hormone abnormalities.

Bone Health: Gonadrorelin controls testosterone and estrogen levels and by doing so it indirectly promotes bone density.

Side Effects

The side effects include mild side effects like swelling or redness at the site of injection. Abdominal pain, nausea, or headache may occur in some people. In rare cases, allergic reactions might cause symptoms including a rash or trouble breathing. Continuous long-term use may cause gonadotropin secretion to be suppressed.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Diagnostic Use: To evaluate pituitary function, a single intravenous dosage of 100 mcg is administered.

Therapeutic Use: Pulsatile injection of 5–20 mcg via a subcutaneous pump every 90–120 minutes is typical for hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.

Continuous Use: The dosage is determined by the disease being treated, such as hormone-sensitive malignancies or endometriosis.

Monitoring: To maximize the effectiveness of treatment, hormone levels must be regularly monitored.

Contraindications

It is contraindicated in:

• People who have recognized sensitivity to GnRH or its derivatives.
• Pregnancy.
• People who have Hormone-sensitive malignancies unless they are utilized for suppression under a doctor's care.

Cost and Accessibility

Prices might vary from $50 to $200 per vial depending on the provider and concentration. Pulsatile delivery devices are more costly, typically costing between $500 and $1,000. At NewBody Rx, they cost $50.

12. IGF-1

The peptide hormone known as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is naturally occurring and is mostly made in the liver in response to growth hormone (GH) stimulation. IGF-1 promotes anabolic processes like protein synthesis and cell proliferation, which are essential for cellular growth, development, and repair. It is a key component of many medicinal and performance-enhancing applications because of its significant role in bone density, muscle growth, and metabolic control.

Fact

IGF-1 is frequently sought after in bodybuilding and sports because it promotes muscular growth and recuperation.

Mechanism of Action

IGF-1 binds to the transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor, known as the IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R), which is expressed in different tissues and mediates its actions. When IGF1R is activated, it starts intracellular signalling cascades such as the MAPK and PI3K-AKT pathways, which result in:

• Increasing protein synthesis and preventing protein breakdown are two aspects of cellular growth.
• Encouraging cell growth and differentiation, especially in cartilage and muscle.
• Controlling lipid metabolism and glucose absorption.

Clinical Data

Studies published in Clinical Endocrinology (2010) showed that IGF-1 may help prevent muscle loss in diseases such as cachexia and sarcopenia. Research suggests that in neurodegenerative illnesses like ALS, IGF-1 may shield neurons and encourage healing.

Dosage Forms

IGF-1 can be injected subcutaneously. Localized delivery experimental formulations of IGF-1 are also available. Although it lacks strong clinical evidence, IGF-1 made from deer antler velvet is sold as a nutraceutical in oral dosage form.

Other Clinical Benefits

It is known to promote osteoblast activity to increase bone strength and density. After surgery or an injury, wound healing speeds up tissue repair and recuperation. IGF-1 has the potential to lower cardiovascular risks and enhance endothelial function.

Side Effects

The side effects include hypoglycemia brought on by insulin-like effects on the metabolism of glucose, and discomfort or soreness that is localized at the injection location. Rarely, long-term, high-dose usage can cause organomegaly or aberrant soft tissue growth. Some people have headaches, joint pain, and temporary edema.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

It is usually administered as two subcutaneous injections; the doses vary from 40 to 120 mcg/kg/day. To avoid hypoglycemia, glucose levels must be regularly checked. The duration of treatment usually lasts for weeks to months, the length of time varies according to the underlying ailment.

Contraindications

It is contraindicated in:

• People who have active cancers or a history of cancer.
• People with intolerance to IGF-1 or its derivatives.
• Women who are nursing or pregnant unless specifically instructed otherwise.
• People with severe renal impairment or uncontrolled diabetes.

Cost and Accessibility

The price of injectable IGF-1 varies by provider and concentration, ranging from $200 to $500 per vial. Items such as supplements containing deer antler velvet range in price from $30 to $100, however they do not have FDA approval or strong efficacy evidence.

13. MOTS-c

The 16-amino acid peptide known as MOTS-c (Mitochondrial Open Reading Frame of the 12S rRNA-c) is produced from mitochondrial DNA. It has drawn interest due to its possible involvement in metabolic control and its consequences for several illnesses, such as age-related disorders, obesity, and insulin resistance. It is thought that MOTS-c acts as a signalling molecule that affects metabolic pathways, especially in adipose and muscle tissues, improving insulin sensitivity and fostering glucose homeostasis.

Fact

According to some, MOTS-c is an "exercise mimetic," which means it can replicate some of the positive effects of exercise on metabolism. This could be especially helpful for people who are unable to regularly engage in physical activity.

Mechanism of Action

The primary mechanism by which MOTS-c works is by activating the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway, which is essential for maintaining cellular energy balance. MOTS-c enhances insulin sensitivity and lowers the risk of metabolic disorders by promoting fatty acid oxidation and glucose absorption in skeletal muscle through AMPK activation. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that MOTS-c alters mitochondrial function, increasing energy output and lowering oxidative stress.

Clinical Data

Clinical research examining MOTS-c's efficacy is currently in its early phases. Nonetheless, initial studies have yielded encouraging findings. According to a study by Lee et al. (2020), giving obese mice MOTS-c enhanced their insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. In a mouse model of obesity, another study found that administering MOTS-c resulted in notable decreases in body weight and fat mass. The current animal studies offer a basis for additional research into the peptide's therapeutic potential, despite the paucity of human clinical trials.

Dosage Forms

MOTS-c is not yet authorized for clinical usage in humans and is now mostly accessible in research settings. In experimental research, it is usually injected subcutaneously as a synthetic peptide.

Other Clinical Benefits

Apart from its impact on metabolism, MOTS-c has been linked to several additional health advantages, such as:

• Effects on Anti-Aging: According to certain research studies, MOTS-c may have anti-aging qualities by enhancing mitochondrial performance and lowering cellular senescence.

• Cardiovascular Health: By enhancing endothelial function and lowering inflammation, preliminary evidence suggests that MOTS-c may have beneficial effects on cardiovascular health.

Side Effects

Numerous adverse effects have been observed, such as fever, sleeplessness, irritated injection sites, elevated heart rate, or palpitations. Additionally, there is no information on the effects of long-term MOTS-c use.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Since MOTS-c is still being studied, there are currently no set dosage recommendations for people. Doses have varied in animal experiments, and more investigation is required to identify the best dosing schedules for possible therapeutic usage.

Contraindications

The precise contraindications for MOTS-c are not well established because there is a dearth of comprehensive clinical evidence. Until more is known about the peptide's effects in populations with documented mitochondrial diseases or metabolic syndromes, caution is advised.

Cost and Accessibility

At NewBody Rx, it costs $40.

14. PT141

Bremelanotide, or PT141, is a synthetic peptide that is produced from alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), a naturally occurring hormone. Its main purpose is to cure sexual dysfunction, especially in women who suffer from hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD). By acting on the central nervous system (CNS), PT141 functions as a melanocortin receptor agonist, affecting sexual arousal and desire.

Fact

In 2019, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized PT141, marketed under the name Vyleesi, to treat HSDD in premenopausal women. This approval made it one of the first medications to address female sexual dysfunction explicitly.

Mechanism of Action

PT141 mainly works by activating the brain's melanocortin receptors (MCRs), especially the MCR-4 and MCR-3 subtypes. By altering neurotransmitter release and boosting dopaminergic transmission in the central nervous system, this activation raises sexual arousal and desire. In contrast to phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors, which function by boosting blood supply to the genital region, PT141 influences sexual drive and arousal centrally. In addition to increasing sexual desire, PT141 may also have an impact on mood and emotional health, which makes it a different kind of treatment than conventional erectile dysfunction drugs that mostly focus on physiological reactions.

Clinical Data

Clinical research has shown that PT141 is effective in treating HSDD. Women who got PT141 reported significantly higher levels of sexual desire and satisfaction than those who received a placebo in a critical Phase 3 clinical trial. According to the study, administering PT141 improved sexual desire scores and increased the number of fulfilling sexual experiences in a statistically significant way. Another study demonstrated that PT141 is safe and tolerable, with most side effects being mild to moderate.

Dosage Forms

PT141 can be administered subcutaneously.

Other Clinical Benefits

Apart from its principal indication for HSDD, PT141 has demonstrated possible advantages in additional domains:

• Male Sexual Dysfunction: Although more research is required to validate these findings, preliminary investigations indicate that PT141 may also be useful in treating erectile dysfunction in men.

• Mood Enhancement: According to some research, PT141 may improve mental health and mood, which could help those with mood disorders.

Side Effects

PT141 frequently causes injection site reactions, flushing, headaches, and nausea. Usually mild to moderate, these side effects go away on their own. Although they are uncommon, serious side effects can include allergic reactions and blood pressure fluctuations.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Subcutaneous administration of 1.75 mg of PT141 is the suggested dose. The injection should be administered about forty-five minutes before sexual activity. Patients should not use more than eight doses in a month or more than one dose in 24 hours.

Contraindications

The precise contraindications for MOTS-c are not well established because there is a dearth of comprehensive clinical evidence. Until more is known about the peptide's effects in populations with documented mitochondrial diseases or metabolic syndromes, caution is advised.

Cost and Accessibility

At NewBody Rx, it costs $40.

15. TB500

Thymosin Beta-4, or TB500, is a synthetic peptide that is a portion of the naturally occurring protein Thymosin Beta-4, which is present in different bodily tissues. The main function of TB500 is to aid in tissue repair and healing, especially in connective tissues like muscle and skin. Its ability to speed up injury healing and boost general physical performance has made it popular in the domains of sports medicine and regenerative medicine.

Fact

New research indicates that because TB500 stimulates the formation of hair follicles, it may be useful in increasing hair growth, especially in disorders like alopecia.

Mechanism of Action

The main way that TB500 works is by attaching itself to actin, a protein that is essential for cell movement and shape. Cell migration is encouraged by this contact, and tissue regeneration and repair depend on it. Furthermore, TB500 contributes to its healing qualities by promoting angiogenesis, or the development of new blood vessels, and regulating inflammation. The expression of several growth factors and cytokines involved in the healing process is also influenced by the peptide.

Clinical Data

There is little clinical data on TB500 in humans, even though it is frequently used in veterinary medicine and has grown in popularity among sportsmen. Nonetheless, several investigations have shown that it works well in animal models. For example, TB500 enhanced cell migration and decreased inflammation in rats, leading to a considerable improvement in wound healing. According to another study, TB500 may help muscles heal after an injury, which could lead to its use in sports medicine. Notwithstanding these encouraging results, further thorough human clinical trials are required to determine its effectiveness and safety profile.

Dosage Forms

For injection, TB500 is usually supplied as a powder that has been reconstituted with sterile water. It is injected either intramuscularly or subcutaneously.

Other Clinical Benefits

Apart from its principal uses in muscle rehabilitation and wound repair, TB500 has demonstrated possible advantages in additional domains:

• Cardiovascular Health: According to certain research, TB500 may protect the heart and help people recover from myocardial infarction or heart attacks.

• Anti-Aging Effects: TB500 is being investigated for its possible use in anti-aging treatments, namely in enhancing the flexibility and health of the skin, because of its regenerative qualities.

Side Effects

The limited comprehensive clinical trials in humans have resulted in a lack of documentation regarding the negative effects of TB500. However, injection site responses, slight discomfort, or swelling are possible adverse effects. Any peptide carries the possibility of allergic responses and other unanticipated consequences, especially when used over an extended period.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

A usual dosage of 2–5 mg given two to three times a week is suggested by anecdotal reports, although there are no formal dosing guidelines for TB500 because it is still under investigation.

Contraindications

People who have a history of recognized hypersensitivity to the peptide or any of its constituents should not take TB500. Because of the peptide's effects on blood vessel formation, people with underlying medical conditions—especially those of the cardiovascular system—should exercise caution.

Cost and Accessibility

At NewBody Rx, it costs $45.

16. TA1 Complex

Thymosin Alpha-1, or TA1 Complex, is a peptide produced by the thymus gland that is essential for immunological regulation. It has immunostimulatory qualities and is made up of 28 amino acids. The TA1 Complex has been investigated for possible therapeutic uses in some illnesses, including immunological deficits, viral infections, and cancer. By encouraging the activity of T-cells and other immune cells, it is known to improve the immunological response.

Fact

The clinical importance of TA1 Complex is demonstrated by its approval in several countries for treating hepatitis B and C and for use in cancer therapy.

Mechanism of Action

The TA1 Complex influences the immune system. It promotes T-cell activation and proliferation, especially that of CD4+ T-helper cells, which are essential for coordinating the immunological response. To further boost immunological activity, the TA1 Complex also promotes the synthesis of certain cytokines, such as interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). It has also been demonstrated to encourage dendritic cell development, which is important for antigen presentation and T-cell activation.

Clinical Data

Clinical research has shown that TA1 Complex works well in various situations. One study showed that in patients with chronic hepatitis B, TA1 Complex dramatically boosted immune activity, resulting in improved liver function and viral clearance. In another clinical study, TA1 Complex boosted the immune system in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy, increasing their chances of survival overall. These results provide credence to using TA1 Complex as a supplemental treatment in a range of clinical settings.

Dosage Forms

A lyophilized powder reconstituted with sterile water before injection is the most common injectable form of TA1 Complex. Depending on the clinical indication, either subcutaneous or intramuscular administration of the peptide is used.

Other Clinical Benefits

Along with its principal immunomodulatory actions, TA1 Complex has demonstrated possible advantages in additional domains:

• Viral Infections: The potential of TA1 Complex as a therapeutic agent for infectious disorders has been shown by research on its capacity to strengthen the immune response against viral infections, such as HIV and influenza.

• Cancer Therapy: Research suggests that the peptide may enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapy and lessen adverse effects associated with treatment. It has been studied as an adjuvant therapy in the treatment of cancer.

Side Effects

Few side effects have been documented, and TA1 Complex is usually well tolerated. Mild injection site responses, such as redness or swelling, are common adverse effects. Allergic responses can happen infrequently. The TA1 Complex has a generally good safety profile, especially when used under medical supervision.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

The clinical indication may influence the TA1 Complex dose. Generally speaking, a typical protocol is administering 1-3 mg of TA1 Complex intramuscularly or subcutaneously two to three times a week. Depending on the condition being treated, the length of treatment may change.

Contraindications

People with a history of peptide or component hypersensitivity should not take TA1 Complex. Patients with autoimmune illnesses should exercise caution because the immunostimulatory effects of TA1 Complex may worsen their problems.

Cost and Accessibility

At NewBody Rx, it costs $45.

17. Epithalon

The synthetic peptide epithalon, sometimes called epitalon or epithalamin, is made from the naturally occurring polypeptide epithalamin, which is generated in the pineal gland. Glycine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and alanine comprise its four constituent amino acids. The epithalon has drawn interest due to its possible anti-aging qualities and function in encouraging telomere extension, which could prolong cell life and enhance general health. Epithalon's ability to improve reproductive health has been investigated for infertility. According to research, by regulating mitochondrial activity and lowering oxidative stress, the epithalon may shield oocytes from aging-related harm, which is important for both male and female fertility. Its antioxidant qualities also improve reproductive function in general.

Fact

It is thought that the epithalon affects the synthesis of melatonin, a hormone that controls sleep-wake cycles and plays several other functions in preserving health. Epithalon may enhance general well-being and sleep quality by raising melatonin levels.

Mechanism of Action

The way that the epithalon works in infertility is by controlling hormone levels, especially by promoting the generation of melatonin, which aids in restoring biological rhythms. Furthermore, it might lessen DNA damage and oxidative stress, safeguarding reproductive cells and increasing fertility in general. The main way that epithalon works is by stimulating telomerase, an enzyme that lengthens telomeres by appending nucleotide sequences to their ends. The telomeres' normal shortening during cell division is partially offset by this process. Furthermore, epithalon may promote the synthesis of melatonin and other neuropeptides, which would support its antioxidant properties and general health advantages.

Clinical Data

Although there have been some early human investigations, animal models have been the primary focus of Epithalon's clinical research. In a study, it was shown that Epithalon might extend the life of mice and enhance some age-related factors, such as oxidative stress levels and immunological function. Although more thorough clinical trials are required to validate these findings, another study found that administering Epithalon to individuals improved their general well-being and the quality of their sleep.

Dosage Forms

Usually supplied in powder form, epithalon can be reconstituted for injection using sterile water. It is injected either subcutaneously or intramuscularly.

Other Clinical Benefits

Apart from its possible anti-aging properties, Epithalon has demonstrated potential in several domains:

• Support for the Immunological System: According to some research, epithalon may improve immunological function, which could increase resistance to illnesses and infections (Anisimov et al., 2011).

• Cognitive performance: Epithalon may have neuroprotective properties, which could improve cognitive performance and lower the risk of neurodegenerative illnesses, according to preliminary studies.

Side Effects

Since there aren't many known side effects, Epithalon is usually regarded as safe. Mild injection site responses, such as redness or swelling, are common adverse effects. Long-term safety information is scarce, and unexpected side effects or allergic responses could happen.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Due to its unapproved status, Epithalon does not have official dose guidelines; nonetheless, anecdotal accounts indicate that a common regimen of 5–10 mg given subcutaneously or intramuscularly once a day for 10–20 days, followed by a break, is recommended.

Contraindications

People who have a history of recognized hypersensitivity to the peptide or any of its constituents should not use epithalon. Patients with underlying medical disorders should exercise caution, especially those with cancer or hormone abnormalities, as the effects of Epithalon on these conditions are not well established.

18. Afamelanotide

Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) has a synthetic analog called afamelanotide, or SCENESSE. Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP), a rare genetic condition marked by excessive sensitivity to sunlight and accompanying pain, is its main usage. Afamelanotide reduces the symptoms of EPP and offers protection from ultraviolet (UV) radiation by boosting the skin's production of melanin.

Fact

The first medication specifically approved for the treatment of EPP was afamelanotide, which was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2019.

Mechanism of Action

The primary mechanism of action of afamelanotide is its binding to melanocortin receptors, specifically the MC1R receptor present in melanocytes (the cells that produce melanin). Increased skin pigmentation results from Afamelanotide's stimulation of melanin synthesis upon binding. By lessening the skin's sensitivity to light, this procedure not only improves the skin's defenses against UV rays but also helps to ease the uncomfortable symptoms of EPP.

Clinical Data

Afamelanotide is effective in treating EPP in clinical trials. According to the Phase 3 clinical trials, patients who received Afamelanotide had a significantly lower rate of phototoxic responses and a higher quality of life than those who received a placebo. Based on another study, using Afamelanotide reduced the frequency of unpleasant episodes brought on by exposure to the sun. These results were supported by another trial which further highlighted the drug's long-term safety and tolerability.

Dosage Forms

Usually given every 28 days, afamelanotide is accessible as a subcutaneous implant. The peptide will be released gradually via the implant, resulting in long-lasting therapeutic benefits.

Other Clinical Benefits

Afamelanotide has been studied for other possible advantages besides its main indication for EPP.

• Skin Protection: According to preliminary research, Afamelanotide may help people with various skin problems by protecting their skin from UV-induced damage

.

• Potential in Other diseases: Studies are being conducted to investigate the potential use of Afamelanotide in additional skin sensitivity and pigmentation diseases.

Side Effects

Although afamelanotide is usually well tolerated, there have been some documented side effects. Typical adverse effects consist of reactions to injection sites (pain, edema, or redness), nausea, headache, and an increase in skin pigmentation. Although serious side effects are uncommon, patients should be watched for any odd reactions.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Every 28 days, one implant (usually 16 mg) of afamelanotide should be given subcutaneously. Throughout treatment, patients should have their effectiveness, and any side effects closely checked.

Contraindications

People who have a history of recognized hypersensitivity to afamelanotide or any of its ingredients should not use it. Patients having a history of melanoma or other skin malignancies should exercise caution because it is unclear how enhanced melanin synthesis affects these illnesses.

19. Setmelanotide

The synthetic peptide setmelanotide, also known by the brand name Imcivree, is a melanocortin receptor agonist that selectively targets the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R). It was mainly created to treat obesity linked to uncommon genetic conditions, especially those that impact the leptin-melanocortin system, like Bardet-Biedl syndrome, POMC (pro-opiomelanocortin) insufficiency, and LEPR (leptin receptor) deficiency. To help with weight management, setmelanotide attempts to reestablish the processes that regulate appetite and energy expenditure.

Fact

In November 2020, the FDA authorized setmelanotide as the first medication designed for treating hereditary obesity diseases, including POMC deficit, LEPR deficiency, and Bardet-Biedl syndrome.

Mechanism of Action

Setmelanotide functions as an agonist of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), which is essential for controlling energy homeostasis and hunger. Setmelanotide improves the signalling pathways that reduce hunger and encourage energy expenditure by activating MC4R. People with genetic abnormalities that interfere with the leptin-melanocortin system, causing uncontrollable appetite and obesity, benefit most from this approach.

Clinical Data

Setmelanotide's effectiveness in treating obesity linked to genetic diseases has been strongly supported by clinical research. Throughout a 12-week treatment period, patients with POMC and LEPR deficits lost a considerable amount of weight in a pivotal Phase 3 trial; many of them achieved a weight reduction of 10% or more from baseline. Significant weight loss and improvements in metabolic markers were also shown in another trial involving Bardet-Biedl syndrome individuals, confirming the medication's efficacy across genetic backgrounds.

Dosage Forms

A sterile solution for subcutaneous injection of setmelanotide is available.

Other Clinical Benefits

Setmelanotide may provide additional clinical advantages beyond its core use for obesity.

• Better Quality of Life: Setmelanotide patients have reported better psychosocial and quality of life outcomes, most likely as a result of weight loss and improved metabolic health.

• Potential in Other Disorders: Studies are being conducted to investigate the potential of setmelanotide in hypothalamic obesity and other disorders associated with obesity and metabolic dysregulation.

Side Effects

Although there have been some reported side effects, setmelanotide is usually well tolerated. Typical side effects consist of reactions to injection sites (pain, edema, or redness), fatigue, headache, and nausea.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

1 mg of setmelanotide should be injected subcutaneously once a day as the initial dosage. A maximum dose of 3 mg per day may be administered; dosage may be changed depending on individual response.

Contraindications

People who have a history of recognized hypersensitivity to setmelanotide or any of its ingredients should not take it. Patients having a history of melanoma or other skin malignancies should exercise caution because it is unclear how elevated melanocortin signaling affects these diseases.

20. Corticorelin

The synthetic peptide corticorelin also referred to as corticorelin ovine triflutate (commercial name: Acthrel), functions similarly to the hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is generated in the hypothalamus. By encouraging the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn encourages the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, it plays a critical function in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In therapeutic settings, corticorelin is mainly used to evaluate adrenal function and identify disorders associated with adrenal insufficiency.

Fact

The short half-life of corticorelin permits quick evaluation of the HPA axis without causing long-term changes in cortisol levels.

Mechanism of Action

By attaching itself to CRH receptors (CRH-R1 and CRH-R2) in the pituitary gland, corticorelin stimulates the release of ACTH. The adrenal cortex is then stimulated to create cortisol because of this rise in ACTH. The body's reaction to stress, metabolism, and immunological function are all significantly impacted by cortisol. Corticorelin helps assess the health of the HPA axis and the adrenal response to stress by simulating the action of natural CRH.

Clinical Data

Corticorelin has been shown in clinical trials to be a useful diagnostic tool for adrenal insufficiency. According to a study, corticorelin stimulation tests might successfully distinguish between primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency, giving medical professionals important diagnostic data. The function of corticorelin in the stress response and its possible significance for comprehending the neurobiology of stress-related diseases were examined in another study.

Dosage Forms

A sterile injectable solution of corticorelin is available. In a clinical environment, it is usually given subcutaneously (SC) or intravenously (IV). Depending on the diagnostic test being conducted.

Other Clinical Benefits

Apart from its principal application in the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency, corticorelin has been studied for other possible advantages:

• Research on Stress Response: Corticorelin's function in the body's reaction to stress has been investigated; this could help us better understand and treat problems linked to stress.

• Potential in Depression: According to certain studies, corticorelin may be used therapeutically to treat anxiety and depression by adjusting cortisol levels and the HPA axis.

Side Effects

Corticorelin is usually well tolerated however there is a chance of certain mild side effects. These consist of reactions to injection sites (pain, edema, or redness), flushing, headache and nausea.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Corticorelin should normally be given intravenously at a dose of 1 to 2 µg/kg for diagnostic purposes. Depending on the therapeutic indication and the stimulation test technique, the precise dosage schedule may change.

Contraindications

People who have a history of recognized hypersensitivity to the peptide or any of its constituents should not use corticorelin. Patients having a history of adrenal tumors or other disorders that could impair adrenal function should exercise caution.

21. Corticotropin

Also referred to as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), corticotropin is a peptide hormone that the anterior pituitary gland produces. By inducing the adrenal glands to generate the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol, it plays a key part in the body's stress response. Numerous essential functions, such as metabolism, immunological response, and stress adaption, are regulated by cortisol. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor protein that is used to make corticotropin. When corticotropin enters the bloodstream, it binds to receptors in the adrenal cortex, causing cortisol to be produced and secreted. Cortisol then affects different body tissues.

Fact

In therapeutic practice, synthetic ACTH derivatives like tetracosactide (Synacthen) are frequently employed. Because of their comparable biological action and composition of the first 24 amino acids of ACTH, these compounds are useful stand-ins in a variety of therapeutic contexts.

Mechanism of Action

Corticotropin works by interacting with the melanocortin 2 receptor (MC2R) on the surface of cells in the adrenal cortex. Adenylate cyclase is activated by corticotropin when it binds to this receptor, raising the amount of cyclic AMP (cAMP) within the cell. The increase in cAMP triggers the activation of protein kinase A (PKA), which in turn triggers the adrenal glands' synthesis and release of cortisol-producing enzymes. Once produced, cortisol has several physiological impacts, including controlling blood sugar levels, encouraging the liver's gluconeogenesis, and reducing inflammation. Furthermore, cortisol affects mood and cognitive function and is necessary for the body to cope with stress. The body's stress response is based on this intricate feedback system.

Clinical Data

Multiple Sclerosis: According to clinical research, ACTH may help control flare-ups of multiple sclerosis (MS). A randomized controlled experiment showed that ACTH treatment significantly improved symptoms and decreased the frequency of exacerbations. The anti-inflammatory qualities of ACTH may aid in lessening the demyelination associated with multiple sclerosis.

Psoriasis and Other Skin Problems: Severe cases of psoriasis, eczema, and other dermatological problems have been treated using ACTH as an alternative. According to studies, ACTH injections can considerably alleviate skin lesions and lower inflammation, which makes them a helpful treatment option in situations when topical corticosteroids don't work.

Nephrotic Syndrome: ACTH has demonstrated promise as a treatment for children with nephrotic syndrome who are not responding to corticosteroid medication. Although its exact mechanism in this situation is still being studied, clinical trials indicate that ACTH can cause remission in cases of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome.

Severe Inflammatory Disorders and Allergic Reactions: ACTH has been utilized to treat acute flare-ups of autoimmune diseases including lupus erythematosus as well as severe allergic reactions brought on by serum sickness. Its clinical efficacy in these contexts is largely dependent on its capacity to regulate the immune response and lower systemic inflammation.

Dosage Forms

There are multiple formulations of corticotropin to meet different therapeutic needs:

• Injectable Solutions: Intramuscular or intravenous administration of an injectable solution is the most popular method of administering ACTH.

• Topical Preparations: Topical versions of corticotropin, such as creams or ointments, are also available and are used to treat dermatitis, psoriasis, and eczema locally.

Other Clinical Benefits

Apart from its well-established applications in the treatment of psoriasis and multiple sclerosis, corticotropin may also be used in the following therapeutic settings:

• Autoimmune illnesses: ACTH has been studied for the treatment of autoimmune illnesses such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) because of its immunomodulatory properties. According to research, ACTH may lessen the occurrence and intensity of illness flare-ups.

• Cognitive and Emotional Support: Studies have looked into how cortisol affects cognitive processes like mood control and memory. Although this impact requires more research, corticotropin may offer temporary relief for some mental illnesses by raising cortisol levels.

• Inflammatory illnesses: The capacity of ACTH to control immune responses and reduce inflammation has made it a promising treatment for several inflammatory illnesses, such as sarcoidosis and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD).

Side Effects

Despite its potential for great effectiveness, corticotropin can have several negative side effects, especially when used for an extended period. These include elevated blood sugar levels, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, infections, edema, and mood swings.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

• Exacerbations of Multiple Sclerosis: During an acute flare-up, high-dose ACTH is given over a few days, usually intravenously. Usually starting at 250 µg daily, the dosage may be reduced by clinical response.

• Psoriasis and Eczema: Subcutaneous or intramuscular injections of ACTH are frequently used to treat severe skin disorders. 40–80 units per day is the usual dosage, which is progressively decreased as the situation becomes better.

• Topical Applications: Patients apply the topical form once or twice daily for dermatological purposes; the dosage is based on the severity of the skin disease.

Contraindications

The following situations call for the avoidance or cautious use of corticotropin:

• Systemic Fungal Infections: Because corticotropin suppresses the immune system, treating fungal infections might be more challenging and may even make the illness worse.

• Peptic Ulcer Disease: In people with a history of peptic ulcers, cortisol may raise the risk of ulcer development.

• Hypertension: Patients with uncontrolled hypertension should avoid or closely monitor medication since ACTH may raise blood pressure.

• Osteoporosis: People with a history of osteoporosis or bone fractures should not take ACTH due to the possibility of decreased bone density with continued use.

• Severe Psychosis: Patients with a history of psychosis should be closely watched because cortisol's mood-altering effects can make mental health issues worse.

22. Tesofenising

A brand-new experimental peptide called tesofensine is being developed to treat obesity. It suppresses hunger and increases energy expenditure by acting as a triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor that targets the serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine pathways. Tesofensine was initially investigated for neurological disorders, but in clinical trials, it has drawn notice of its notable effects on weight loss.

Fact

Tesofensine was first investigated as a possible treatment for neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, but its development was set aside for those purposes because of its poor efficacy. It later became well-known for its amazing weight-loss results.

Mechanism of Action

Tesofensine increases serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels in the brain by acting as a triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor. Reduced food intake and increased energy expenditure result from this elevation's enhancement of neurotransmission in circuits that control appetite and energy balance.

Clinical Data

Tesofensine's effectiveness and safety in treating obesity have been assessed by clinical studies:

Phase II Trials: According to a Phase IIb trial that was published in The Lancet, obese people who took tesofensine lost a substantial amount of weight in comparison to those who took a placebo. Over six months, the 1 mg dosage group lost an average of 12.8 kg, whereas the placebo group dropped 2.2 kg.

Safety and Tolerability: According to the same study, tesofensine was generally well tolerated, with headache, nausea, and dry mouth among its prevalent adverse effects. Participants' heart rates and blood pressure did not significantly change.

Dosage Forms

Currently, tesofensine can be purchased as oral capsules, with quantities usually falling between 0.25 and 1 mg. Clinical trial methods are used to determine the precise dosage and treatment plan, which may change in subsequent clinical practice.

Other Clinical Benefits

Tesofensine's alteration of neurotransmitter levels may have advantages beyond weight loss in the following areas:

• Neurodegenerative illnesses: Tesofensine was first created to treat Alzheimer's and Parkinson's illnesses, but its low effectiveness led to its discontinuation for these conditions.

• Appetite Regulation: Tesofensine may enhance mood and lessen food cravings by raising serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels. This could help with long-term weight loss.

Side Effects

Typical side effects of Tesofensine include mouth dryness, headache, nausea, sleeplessness, constipation, and diarrhea. These side effects tended to lessen with time and were often mild to moderate in intensity.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Following is the tesofensine dosage schedule:

Initial Dosage: 0.25 mg per day

Titration: The dosage may be raised to 0.5 mg and subsequently to 1 mg once daily, depending on the patient's response and tolerability.

Tesofensine should be taken in the morning to reduce the possibility of sleep disruptions. The capsules can be taken with or without meals, and they should be swallowed whole with water.

Contraindications

Tesofensine is contraindicated in the following conditions:

• Allergy: A known allergy to tesofensine or any of its constituents is known as hypersensitivity.

• Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: Avoid using this product during pregnancy and lactation as its safety has not been proven.

• Severe Cardiovascular disorders: Tesofensine should not be used by anyone who has arrhythmias, uncontrolled hypertension, or other severe cardiac disorders.

• Use of Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs): Because of the possibility of a hypertensive crisis, concurrent use of MAOIs is not advised.

23. Insulin

The pancreatic beta cells create the peptide hormone insulin. Because it facilitates the absorption of glucose into cells for energy synthesis or storage, it plays a critical function in controlling blood glucose levels. For people with type 1 diabetes, insulin therapy is crucial, and when other therapies are not enough, it is frequently necessary for people with type 2 diabetes.

Fact

Charles Best and Frederick Banting developed insulin in 1921, which resulted in a ground-breaking diabetes treatment. Banting won the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery.

Mechanism of Action

Mostly found in muscle and adipose tissue, insulin attaches itself to certain receptors on the surface of target cells. To facilitate glucose absorption, this interaction initiates a signalling cascade that encourages the translocation of glucose transporter proteins (such as GLUT4) to the cell membrane. Insulin also helps to maintain blood glucose homeostasis by promoting the synthesis of glycogen and inhibiting the generation of glucose by the liver.

Clinical Data

The effectiveness of insulin therapy in controlling blood glucose levels in diabetics has been repeatedly shown in clinical trials. When compared to ordinary human insulin, a pooled study of clinical pharmacology trials examining the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of fast-acting insulin aspart in people with type 1 diabetes revealed better postprandial glucose management.

Dosage Forms

Different formulations of insulin are available to accommodate the needs of patients.

• Rapid-Acting Insulin: Contains glulisine, aspart, and insulin lispro; starts to work within 15 minutes.
• Short-Acting Insulin: Normal human insulin that starts to work within 30 minutes.
• Neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin is an intermediate-acting insulin that starts to act in 1-2 hours.
• Insulin glargine and detemir are examples of long-acting insulin, which starts to act within 1-2 hours and doesn't have a noticeable peak.
• Insulin degludec, or ultra-long-acting insulin, has a duration longer than twenty-four hours.

These formulations are delivered by subcutaneous injection; vials, prefilled pens, and insulin pumps are among the administration modalities.

Other Clinical Benefits

Other advantages of insulin therapy besides glycemic control include:

• Anabolic Effects: Helps prevent muscular atrophy by promoting protein synthesis and inhibiting protein breakdown.

• Lipid Metabolism: Reduces circulating free fatty acids and activates lipoprotein lipase, which helps adipose tissue store triglycerides.

Side Effects

Insulin therapy frequently causes the following side effects:

• Low blood sugar levels, or hypoglycemia, can result in symptoms like trembling, perspiration, disorientation, and in extreme situations, unconsciousness.

• Weight Gain: As a result of the anabolic actions of insulin, there is an increase in the storage of fat.

• Redness, swelling, or itching at the injection site are examples of injection site reactions.

• Changes in fat tissue at injection sites that result in lumps or indentations are known as lipodystrophy.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Individualized insulin dosage is determined by blood glucose levels, nutritional consumption, physical activity, and the type of diabetes. Typical rules include:

A basal-bolus regimen is necessary for people with type 1 diabetes, which combines rapid-acting insulin for coverage during meals with long-acting insulin for baseline requirements.

Type 2 Diabetes: If glycemic goals are not reached, combination regimens may be used after basal insulin is used initially.

To modify dosage and avoid issues, blood glucose levels must be regularly monitored.

Contraindications

Insulin treatment should not be administered to those who have:

• Hypersensitivity: Reactions to insulin or any ingredient in the formulation that cause allergies.

• Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar that goes untreated because giving insulin can make it worse.

24. Oxytocin

The posterior pituitary gland releases oxytocin, a peptide hormone, and neuropeptide that is mostly made in the hypothalamus. It is essential for many physiological functions, such as social bonding, lactation, and birthing. Oxytocin, sometimes known as the "love hormone," affects emotional reactions and social interactions.

Fact

In addition to its physiological effects, oxytocin operates as a neurotransmitter in the brain that affects social behaviors like bonding, empathy, and trust.

Mechanism of Action

The uterus, mammary glands, and brain are among the tissues that have oxytocin receptors, which are G-protein-coupled receptors that oxytocin binds to to produce its effects. When oxytocin binds, it triggers intracellular signaling pathways that cause the uterus muscles to contract during delivery and the milk to be ejected during breastfeeding. Oxytocin affects social and emotional behaviors in the brain by modifying neuronal activity.

Clinical Data

The clinical uses of oxytocin have been well investigated:

Labor Induction and Augmentation: By inducing uterine contractions, oxytocin is frequently utilized to either induce or enhance labor. Its physiology, pharmacology, and clinical uses in obstetrics are covered in detail in an extensive study published in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Psychiatric Disorders: Intranasal oxytocin injection has been studied as a possible treatment for mental illnesses like schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders that are marked by social impairments. The present state and issues surrounding oxytocin's therapeutic interventions in these illnesses are highlighted in a review published in the Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.

Dosage Forms

Oxytocin is available in following dosage forms:

• Injectable solution: Mainly used to induce labor or reduce postpartum hemorrhage, it can be administered intravenously or intramuscularly.

• Intranasal spray: has been studied for its ability to treat specific mental health issues and regulate social behaviours.

Other Clinical Benefits

In addition to its known functions, oxytocin has demonstrated promise in additional therapeutic domains:

• Anti-Inflammatory Effects: Research indicates that oxytocin may have anti-inflammatory properties that affect several organs that are vulnerable to damage from sepsis.

• Postpartum Depression: Studies suggest that by strengthening mother-infant bonds and lowering anxiety, oxytocin may help cure postpartum depression.

• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Research is being done on how oxytocin can improve social cognition and interaction in people with autism spectrum disorders.

Side Effects

Although oxytocin is usually regarded as safe when taken as directed, the following are possible adverse effects:

• Uterine hyperstimulation: Prolonged contractions of the uterus can cause problems during birth and discomfort for the fetus.

• Hyponatremia: The antidiuretic actions of oxytocin can result in low sodium levels and water retention when high doses are administered over an extended period.

• Hypotension: A quick intravenous shot could cause a brief drop in blood pressure.

Administration Dose and Guidelines

Depending on its intended use, oxytocin dosage varies:

Labour Induction: Usually started at 0.5 to 1 milliliter per minute, labor induction or augmentation is gradually increased until a sufficient contraction pattern is achieved.

Postpartum Hemorrhage: An intravenous infusion or a 10-unit intramuscular injection are used to stop the bleeding.

Intranasal Use: In research settings, dosages and frequency of delivery vary, frequently requiring many administrations daily.

To guarantee safety, fetal heart rate and uterine activity must be continuously monitored during administration.

Contraindications

Oxytocin is contraindicated in the following conditions:

• Placenta Previa: Where the placenta covers the cervical aperture
• Vasa Previa: Blood arteries in the fetus cross or pass close to the uterine entrance.
• Active Genital Herpes Infection: Risk of transmitting the infection to the newborn during delivery.
• Fetal Distress: When the fetus is in distress and birth is not imminent.
• Unfavorable Fetal Positions: When vaginal birth is not recommended, such as transverse lying.

25. Glucagon

The pancreatic alpha cells create the peptide hormone glucagon. It is essential for the metabolism of glucose because it raises blood sugar levels, which negates the effects of insulin. Glucagon is used in clinical settings to treat severe hypoglycemia, especially in diabetics.

Fact

The commercial availability of glucagon dates to the 1960s. Because of their short-term stability after reconstitution, previous formulations needed reconstitution of a dry powder with diluent just before injection. In emergencies, this intricacy frequently resulted in underutilization.

Mechanism of Action

When glucagon is administered, it attaches itself to glucagon receptors, which are mostly found in the liver. Glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, and gluconeogenesis, the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, are both triggered by this interaction. Blood sugar levels rise because of the freshly generated glucose being released into the circulation.

Clinical Data

Clinical research has assessed the safety and effectiveness of several glucagon formulations:

Intranasal Glucagon: The mean time to treatment success for both intranasal and conventional injectable forms of glucagon was found to be between 10 and 20 minutes. Although nausea and vomiting were common side effects, intranasal treatment also more commonly caused runny nose and watery eyes. Intranasal glucagon was administered by caretakers in simulated experiments faster (within 1 minute) than intramuscular injections (1.3–5 minutes), indicating better usability.

Dasiglucagon: In people with type 1 diabetes, dasiglucagon, a next-generation glucagon analog, has been shown to quickly and effectively reverse hypoglycemia. In emergency therapy situations, its readily available aqueous formulation may be advantageous.

Dosage Forms

Glucagon comes in a variety of forms:

• Injectable Kits: Conventional emergency kits must be reconstituted before use.

• Auto-injectors that are ready to use and make administration easier are known as pre-mixed injectors.

• An alternative to using a needle, intranasal powder is delivered through the nasal passages.

Other Clinical Benefits

Other clinical uses for glucagon have been investigated in addition to treating extreme hypoglycemia:

• Diagnostic Aid: To calm the gastrointestinal tract during specific diagnostic tests, glucagon may be utilized.

• Beta-Blocker Overdose: To reverse the effects of beta-blockers on the heart, glucagon may be used.

Side Effects

After administration, nausea and vomiting are commonly noted. A runny nose and watery eyes are possible side effects of intranasal formulations.

Administration Dose and Guidelines‍

When treating severe hypoglycemia in adults, 1 mg is usually given intramuscularly, subcutaneously, or intranasally. The usual dosage for pediatric patients who weigh less than 25 kg is 0.5 mg. For exact dosage, it's critical to adhere to the directions on the product and refer to medical advice.

Contraindications‍

Glucagon should not be administered to anyone who has:

• Pheochromocytoma: Because of the possibility of an overabundance of catecholamines.
• Insulinoma: Because it can make hypoglycemia worse.

CONCLUSION‍

In contemporary medicine, peptide therapy has become a ground-breaking strategy that provides focused treatments for a variety of illnesses. These cutting-edge medications are revolutionizing clinical treatments, from boosting skin renewal with collagen-stimulating peptides to boosting muscular growth and fat metabolism with growth hormone-releasing peptides. While some peptides, like semaglutide, are transforming weight management and metabolic health, others, including BPC-157 and Thymosin Beta-4, have demonstrated promise in speeding recovery.

Patients and professionals alike are gaining access to safe, effective, and extremely targeted treatment choices as research into peptide therapy continues to reveal its full potential. To learn more about how these potent substances can meet your particular needs and enhance your health journey, speak with a healthcare provider if you're thinking about peptide treatment. The future of personalized medicine appears more promising than ever because of the expanding developments in peptide research.

REFERENCES

Seldeen, K.L., Shahini, A., Thiyagarajan, R., Redae, Y., Leiker, M., Rajabian, N., Dynka, A., Andreadis, S.T. and Troen, B.R., 2021. Short-term nicotinamide riboside treatment improves muscle quality and function in mice and increases cellular energetics and differentiating capacity of myogenic progenitors. Nutrition, 87, p.111189.

Okabe, K., Yaku, K., Tobe, K. and Nakagawa, T., 2019. Implications of altered NAD metabolism in metabolic disorders. Journal of biomedical science, 26(1), p.34.

Zhou, C., Yang, X., Wang, Y., Xi, J., Pan, H., Wang, M., Zhou, Y. and Xiao, Y., 2022. Ovulation triggering with hCG alone, GnRH agonist alone or in combination? A randomized controlled trial in advanced-age women undergoing IVF/ICSI cycles. Human Reproduction, 37(8), pp.1795-1805.

Gianturco, S.L., Pavlech, L.L., Storm, K.D., Yoon, S., Yuen, M.V. and Mattingly, A.N., 2020. Sermorelin acetate: Summary Report.

Johansen, P.B., Nowak, J., Skjærbæk, C., Flyvbjerg, A., Andreassen, T.T., Wilken, M. and Ørskov, H., 1999. Ipamorelin, a new growth-hormone-releasing peptide, induces longitudinal bone growth in rats. Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 9(2), pp.106-113.

Raun, K., Hansen, B.S., Johansen, N.L., Thogersen, H., Madsen, K., Ankersen, M. and Andersen, P.H., 1998. Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. European journal of endocrinology, 139(5), pp.552-561.

Stanley, T.L., Feldpausch, M.N., Oh, J., Branch, K.L., Lee, H., Torriani, M. and Grinspoon, S.K., 2014. Effect of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation: a randomized clinical trial. Jama, 312(4), pp.380-389.

Mecasermin (Increlex): CADTH Reimbursement Review: Therapeutic area: Severe primary insulin-like growth factor 1 deficiency [Internet]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2022 Mar. Clinical Review. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK596664

Seiwerth, S., Sikiric, P., Grabarevic, Z., Zoricic, I., Hanzevacki, M., Ljubanovic, D., Coric, V., Konjevoda, P., Petek, M., Rucman, R. and Turkovic, B., 1997. BPC 157's effect on healing. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 91(3-5), pp.173-178.

Teichman, S.L., Neale, A., Lawrence, B., Gagnon, C., Castaigne, J.P. and Frohman, L.A., 2006. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 91(3), pp.799-805.

Sale, P. and Center, K., Research of AOD 9604 in Fat Reduction and Metabolic Regulation by Dr. Usman| Aug 15, 2022| Research.

Pickart, L. and Margolina, A., 2018. Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide in the light of the new gene data. International journal of molecular sciences, 19(7), p.1987.

Gianturco, S.L., Pavlech, L.L., Storm, K.D., Yuen, M.V. and Mattingly, A.N., 2021. Gonadorelin acetate: Summary Report.

Velloso, C.P., 2008. Regulation of muscle mass by growth hormone and IGF‐I. British journal of pharmacology, 154(3), pp.557-568.

Lee, C., Kim, K.H. and Cohen, P., 2016. MOTS-c: a novel mitochondrial-derived peptide regulating muscle and fat metabolism. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 100, pp.182-187.

Molinoff, P.B., Shadiack, A.M., Earle, D., Diamond, L.E. and Quon, C.Y., 2003. PT‐141: A melanocortin agonist for the treatment of sexual dysfunction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 994(1), pp.96-102.

Xing, Y., Ye, Y., Zuo, H. and Li, Y., 2021. Progress on the Function and Application of Thymosin β4. Frontiers in endocrinology, 12, p.767785.

Tuthill, C.W. and King, R.S., 2013. Thymosin apha 1–A peptide immune modulator with a broad range of clinical applications. Clin Exp Pharmacol, 3(4), p.133.

Yue, X., Liu, S.L., Guo, J.N., Meng, T.G., Zhang, X.R., Li, H.X., Song, C.Y., Wang, Z.B., Schatten, H., Sun, Q.Y. and Guo, X.P., 2022. Epitalon protects against post-ovulatory aging-related damage of mouse oocytes in vitro. Aging (Albany NY), 14(7), p.3191.

Minder, E.I., Barman-Aksoezen, J. and Schneider-Yin, X., 2017. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of afamelanotide and its clinical use in treating dermatologic disorders. Clinical pharmacokinetics, 56(8), pp.815-823.

Clément, K., van den Akker, E., Argente, J., Bahm, A., Chung, W.K., Connors, H., De Waele, K., Farooqi, I.S., Gonneau-Lejeune, J., Gordon, G. and Kohlsdorf, K., 2020. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency: single-arm, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trials. The lancet Diabetes & endocrinology, 8(12), pp.960-970.

Panickar, K.S., 2010. Corticorelin, a synthetic human corticotropin-releasing factor analog, for the treatment of peritumoral brain edema. Current Opinion in Molecular Therapeutics, 12(6), pp.780-789.

Caruso, A., Gaetano, A. and Scaccianoce, S., 2022. Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone: Biology and Therapeutic Opportunities. Biology, 11(12), p.1785.

Axel, A.M.D., Mikkelsen, J.D. and Hansen, H.H., 2010. Tesofensine, a novel triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor, induces appetite suppression by indirect stimulation of α1 adrenoceptor and dopamine D1 receptor pathways in the diet-induced obese rat. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(7), pp.1464-1476.

Home, P.D. and Mehta, R., 2021. Insulin therapy development beyond 100 years. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 9(10), pp.695-707.

Harris, J.C. and Carter, C.S., 2013. Therapeutic interventions with oxytocin: current status and concerns. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(10), pp.998-1000.

Singh-Franco, D., Moreau, C., Levin, A.D., De La Rosa, D. and Johnson, M., 2020. Efficacy and usability of intranasal glucagon for the management of hypoglycemia in patients with diabetes: a systematic review. Clinical Therapeutics, 42(9), pp.e177-e208.

‍